Where is Bhalessa ?

Bhalessa- A land of Legendaries

By Sadaket Malik**

*Educational Arena ?

*Cultural Heritage ?
*Social Sector ?
*Political Scenerio ?
* Economy ?
* Developmental Conva ?
* People in Goverenance/ in diverse fields ?
* Tourism Attrection ?
* Where we stand ?

Full of awe aspiring mountains and having a huge potential of tourism industry here, The narrow road snaked its way through towering slopes, throwing up enormous clouds of dust. It passed by little hamlets, comprising a couple of houses built around pagoda-shaped mosques and box-like temples with sloping roofs made of corrugated iron Bhalessa is known for traditional communal hormony. Owing to the commitment and mutual understanding of the Hindu Muslim secular heritage the nefarious designs has been wiped and local inhabitants diverted their attention towards the higher objectives. Bhalessa has a rich history. The area derived its name from its people "Bhalay Loug" (The right people with right destiny)- The people working and inhibiting without any political mileage.The two communities continue to live together in the same towns and villages in relative peace, beside the fissiparous tendencies of nefarious designs prevalent here.Bhalessa is full of meadows popularly known as Dhar like Kanthi, Soin Bhagar, Roharhi, Dagan, Bal Padri, etc. the area is mountainous, it has umpteen number of trekking routes which pass through places with unbelievable captivating scenic beauty The place is a comfortable base for trekkers and mountaineers, on their way to the Great Himalayas By road, bus services from Doda connect Bhalessa. The nearest railhead is 119 km away at Jammu. Tiny patches of wheat and mustard, like patchwork quilts, straddled the edge of the stream that rushed down from the snow-capped peaks in the distance with an irrepressible passion to merge into the Chenab beyond. Children played cricket on improvised pitches on patches of land left fallow or lazed around on conical haystacks. Weather-beaten Bakkarwal men, with their hennaed beards and loosely wound turbans, led flocks of hairy mountain goats. Their children and womenfolk followed after them, driving mules laden with pots, pans and bedding their mobile homes. The perfect picture of serenity. Bhalessa is one of the most remote and inaccessible parts of Doda. Straddling the border with Chamba in Himachal Pradesh, it has a Muslim majority, with a Hindu minority of a little more than a third of the population. The history of Bhalessa and Bhaderwah dates back to 200 B.C. When the revered Buddhist scholar Nagsena was invited to a discussion by king Mender in his palace at Sakla.Kishtwar. In the discussions Nagsena replied all the questions of the king who then embraced Buddhism and became king Milinda. Nagsena recorded the discussion in "Millinda Panha" a Pali Treatise on the fundamental principles of Buddhist philosophy.The Islamic faith entered the region of Bhalessa as a spiritual and moral force, when Alhaj Ab. Gani sadiqi invited the people and familiarised them of the faith. The principality of Bhaderwah Bhalessa was distributed into 15 tharas or administrative units. The total area of Bhaderwah Jagir (including Bhalessa etc) was 533 sq.miles which after amalgamation with Udhampur district in 1931 was reduced to 213 sq.miles only. The earliest mention of the place is traced from Rajatarangni around (1112-28 A.D.) On the recommendations of Private Domain Assimilation Committee, the status of Bhadarwah ended in 1930 A.D. Consequently Bhadarwah became a tehsil of Udhampur District in 1931. After establishment of District Headquarter Doda, Bhadarwah was made a tehsil of this District including Bhalessa as a Niabet. Consequent upon reorganization of District and Tehsils, Naibat Thathri and Niabat Bhalessa of Bhadarwah Tehsil also became full fledged Tehsils in 1981. Tehsil Thathri and Tehsil Gandoh were carved out of Sub- Division Bhaderwah. District Doda had one Sub-District Ramban, two Sub-Divisions namely Kishtwar and Bhaderwah. While Ramban and Kishtwar have been upgraded as Districts, Tehsil Bhalessa has been upgraded as Sub - Division. This way there again remain two Sub-Divisions i.e. Bhaderwah and Gandoh with three Tehsils namely Bhaderwah, Gandoh and Thathri in District Doda. As such, in any case one Sub-Division is to have two Tehsils while the other will remain Sub-Division for one Tehsil. It may be in place to mention that the distance from Thathri to Gandoh is only 30 Kms whereas distance from Thathri to Bhaderwah is around 60 Kms. Moreover, one has to first reach Khillani or Pul - Doda and then take another transport for going to Bhaderwah, causing inconvenience to the public. The motorable road from Thathri to Gandoh is in the process of up gradation which when completed, will make road journey from Thathri to Gandoh shorter and more convenient as compared to journey to Bhaderwah. Thus, on the basis of contiguity and administrative convenience Tehsil Thathri is in closer proximity to Gandoh than Bhaderwah and it will be in the larger interests of the public of Tehsil Thathri that it is made part of new Sub-Division Gandoh.Another demand received by the Committee during its visit to the area pertains to attachment of eleven villages of Patwar Halqas Patnazi and Jawalapur commonly known as Bunjawa with Tehsil Thathri after their detachment from Tehsil Kishtwar on the ground of proximity of the area and convenience of the people. Several projects has been taken by the government like Kahara Jai Road approved with sum of Rs. 20.78 crore under the Central Road Fund (CRF) Scheme for construction of 16 km long village road (3.75 m wide) with Retaining wall from Kahara Jai Road up to Village Jaurn. This road will connect village Kahara in Bhalessa area with Jai in Bhaderwah passing through the villages of Gugara, Malanu, Bithola, Bagdair, Halaran, Jooda and Shamdalian before entering the picturesque meadows of Jai in Bhaderwah thus opening up avenues of development for people of all these villages. Haji Sahib, a Sufi who was held in considerable respect and reverence by many local Muslims as well as Hindus and a master mind behind cementing the hormony and brotherhood in the area. The school is till the tenth grade and is affiliated to the Jammu and Kashmir Board of School Education. Most of the roughly 1000 students come from poor families, and the fees are relatively low. Numerous very poor children receive education free of cost. The school has a number of Hindu students, and almost a tenth of its teachers are Hindus, the rest being Muslims. In addition to the school, Haji Sahib has set up a madrasa, the Jamia Ganiatul Ulum, which has some fifty students training to become ulama or Islamic clerics. Most of these children are from impoverished families, and in the madrasa they receive free education, boarding and lodging as well as the possibility of a job as a religious specialist once they graduate. An epitome of peace and brotherhood late Gh. Rasool Azad and his associated faternity including Nil kanth parihar, Mir Munwer din, Mohd shafi Mattoo, Prof. Ummer Din, Munshi Ram Chand Parihar, Ghulam Nabi Rather, Habib Malik contributed for the maintainence of secular heritage of Bhalessa. Besides this, the tettering educational affairs of the area was shaped by the then Director Education Ghulam Rasool Azad who belongs from the area. Packed with outstanding achievements, Ghulam Rasool Azad left no stone unturened to revamp the education system of the area. As ill luch would have it this legendary man not reamined among the people. At this moment, Bhalessa has been revealed as a hub of education as the introduction of new institutions of higher learning and increases impetus on the information technology and professional education. IGNOU and some other organisations has started churning several industrially employable graduates from the area. The setting up of a Government Degree College at Kilhotran is an other feather to its cap. Upgradation of local high schools into higher secondary schools is a milestone in the history. Presently Bhalessa is enjoying a sub division resumed by Sub Divisional Megistrate Gandoh and tehsildar Gandoh. The emergence of Bhalessa as a hub of higher education, the tattering educational affairs has been altered, there is a rising tide in the sphere of education in Bhalessa. Bhalessa is having several zones like Neeli, Chanti Khal Jugasar, Chilly, Basnota, Pingal, Jitota, Gandoh. It is beyond the doubt that the Both the communities of the area are living with amity and are competing with the people of the rest of the state. The Government should look after the scenic beauties to rejuvenate the social fabric and tourism industry of the state.

*(The auther is a feelance columnist based in Bhalessa at Jammu and can be contacted at Sadaketmalik@rediffmail.com). Cell 9419899815-14

TIPS FOR IAS

How to Prepre for IAS Prelim
Resource Material edited by Sadaket Malik Thursday, November 06, 2008
An extensive study is required for preparing GS Prelims. Start your preparation with ncert books of 10th standard on various subjects like History, Geography, Polity, Science etc. and then go through other books recommended for G.S. It will be better to prepare G.S. Mains first and then for Prelims.
For G.S. Mains start your preparation with recommended books, magazines and newspapers. Here, one should be very careful about the word-limit because you have to answer the questions in limited number of words. This also can be achieved through practice. There should not be any introductory remarks while answering the questions of G.S. Mains. Try to write the answers to the point.
In Preliminary exam, multiple choice questions are asked and these can be answered on the basis of facts you have remembered while reading the books on various subjects. One should also try to develop the capacity of answering multiple choice questions as quickly as possible because you have only 120 minutes for answering 150 questions in exam.Tips for General Studies Preparation
1. Read newspapers and magazines carefully, which will expand your knowledge base and give good command and writing skill.2. Preparation for General studies should be done hand in hand while preparing for optional papers.3. NCERT books should be studied carefully and newspapers like The Hindu and magazines such as Frontline.4. Trend nowadays has shifted more towards current issues, hence a thorough awareness of recent events/happenings is mandatory.5. Other than the syllabus given, questions on planning, budgeting, developmental programmes, latest issues of political and constitutional importance, Panchayati Raj, electoral reforms, natural resources, culture, growth of nationalism, committees, commissions etc can be expected almost every year.6. Emphasis is normally placed on the general aspects of the subjects, which every educated person aspiring to join the civil services is expected to know.7. The General Studies paper needs special and thorough preparations and does not need to be over-emphasised.8. Those who would like to appear for Civil Services should have a strong base, which will make them easy to follow the subjects.9. Exhaustive study of each subject and every aspect of the General Studies is essential.10. An important point is efficient time management and proper planning. The time available with the candidates for preparations is limited and hence has to be intelligently utilized.
Reading Material for UPSC General Studies Exam
Indian Polity:NCERT (+1 level)—Indian Political SystemN.L. Madan : Bhartiya Rajya VyavasthaD.D. Basu—Indian ConstitutionKashyap—Constitution of IndiaPublication Division—Subhash Kashyap : Our ParliamentP.M. Bakshi—Indian Constitution
Science:NCERT : (10 level) : Science, (+2 level) : Biology.Popular Science Series (CSIR)
Indian History & Culture:NCERT (+ 2 level) — Ancient India, Medieval India, Modern India.Publication Division : Gazetteer of India (Vol 2 : History & Culture)Vaid’s Study Notes.Gandhi Nehru Tagore & Ambedkar—Gopal KrishnaRaghavan Aiyer—Mahatma Gandhi
Geography:NCERT (+2 level)Sharma & Cotinho : Economic and Commercial Geography of India.Indian EconomyNCERT (+1 level)—Evolution of Indian Economy.Mishra & Puri or Dutt & SundaramBimal Jalan
Statistics:(NCERT +1 level) Elementary Statistics
1. India Year Book latest2. One competitive Magazine3. Economic Times & The Hindu4. Yojana/Kurukshetra.
Time Allowed : Three HoursMaximum Marks: 300
Q.1. Answer any ONE of the following (About 250 words) : - 30(a) Trace the origin of the Swadeshi Movement. How did it involve the masses(b) What was Mountbatten Plan ? Discuss the reactions of Gandhi and Azad to the Plan.
Q. 2. Answer any TWO of the following (About 150 words each):- 15 x 2 = 30(a) Who established the Arya Samaj ? What was its goal ?(b) How did the terrorist movement gather strength in countries other than India?(c) Was Jawaharlal Nehru justified in adopting the principle of non-alignment as the corner-stone of India’s foreign policy ?
Q. 3. Answer the following (About 20 words each) : - 2 x 15 = 30(i) Brahmagupta(ii) Amir Khusro(iii) William Jones(iv) C.F. Andrews(v) Narayan Guru(vi) Tantia Tope(vii) Sayyid Ahmad(viii) Margaret Noble(ix) Sangam Literature(x) Gandhara School of art(xi) Granth Sahib(xii) Fort William College(xiii) Epsom(xiv) Lala Amarnath(xv) Tiger Woods.
Q. 4. Answer any TWO of the following (About 125 words each):- 2 x 10 = 20(a) Mention the agro-climatic regions of India stating the basis of classification.(b) Explain the major racial groups of India.(c) What is waste land ? Write a note on prospects of waste land development in India.
Q. 5. Write notes on the following (About 20 words each) :- 5 x 2 = 10(i) Linguistic regions of India(ii) Nagarjunasagar Project(iii) Mango Showers(iv) Multi-level planning in India(v) India’s Laterite soils.
Q. 6. Answer any ONE of the following (About 250 words):- 30(a) Examine the need for the review of the Indian Constitution.(b) Examine the demand for greater State-antonomy and also its impact on the smooth functioning of the Indian polity.
Q. 7. Answer any ONE of the following (About 250 words) :- 30(a) How does Parliament control the Union Executive ? How effective is its control ?(b) What constitutes the doctrine of ‘basic features’ as introduced into the Constitution of India by the Judiciary ?
Q. 8. Answer any TWO of the following (About 150 words each) :- 15 x 2 = 30(a) Identify, the major electoral reforms which are necessary in the Indian Political System.(b) Examine the role of Estimates Committee.(c) Discuss the major extra-constitutional factors influencing the working of federal polity in India.
Q. 9. Answer the following (About 20 words each) :- 5 x 2 = 10(a) What is vote on account ?(b) What is a Caretaker Government ?(c) Do you justify the Prime Minister’s entry into Parliament through the Rajya Sabha ?(d) What is a Privilege Motion ?(e) What is Contempt of Parliament ?
Q.10. Answer any ONE of the following (About 250 words) :- 30(a) Discuss the provisions of the Human Rights Protection ACt (1993) relating to the following :-(i) Definition of human rights.(ii) Composition of the National Human Rights Commission.(iii) Functions of the Commission.(iv) What suggestions have been made for amending the Act for making the role of the NHRCmore effective ?(b) Discuss the propositions laid down by the Supreme Court of India in the context of Torture in Prisons and Human Dignity.
Q. 11. Write on any TWO of the following (About 125 words each) :- 2 x 10 = 20(a) Explain Public Interest Litigation. Who can file it and on what basis can it be rejected by the Court of Law ?(b) Discuss Human Genome.(c) What are the features of the Uttar Pradesh Regulation of Public Religious Buildings and Places Bill, 2000, that have caused widespread protests from minorities ?
Q. 12. Write notes on any TWO of the following (About 125 words each) : 2 x 10 = 20(a) Universal Postal Union(b) Economic and Social Council(c) Florence Nightingale.
Q.13. Write about the following (About 20 words each) :- 2 x 5 = 10(a) CRY(b) Baba Amte(c) Ali Sardar Jafri(d) ‘Water’(e) Aruna Roy.
No matter how much or how little you study one thing is crucial for you to realize; you are being tested by an examination so you must practice answering examination questions. How you approach these practice questions will greatly affect your exam success. Here’s what you have to do. Never answer questions with the text book or study notes in front of you. It is essential that you practice your exam questions under the same conditions you will face in the exam!
Even if you promise yourself not to look, a brief glance unknown to yourself will help you answer a part of a question and lead to believe that you know it when you don’t! When you find yourself hitting a brick wall in an exam on material you thought you knew, this can be one of the causes. Even the psychological comfort of having your study notes nearby is something you won’t have in the exam and once you find yourself without them you will feel the pressure.
Time yourself. Write down the time at the start of each question and at the end. Don’t worry if you go over the allocated time, you will improve with practice. But do keep an eye on how long you are taking. If you are consistently over the time, then either you are writing too much or you do not know your content well enough and you are taking too long to think about it.
Usually if you have practiced a lot and are still taking too long, you do know your material but are writing too much. Pay more attention to the wording of your questions, and the marks awarded for each section, if this is available. This will help you gauge the depth required. Ask your teacher to correct some of your answers to see what you can safely leave out.
Current Affairs
IAS Papers : Tips to Prepare General Studies Paper
Monday, July 28th, 2008
An extensive study is required for preparing GS Prelims. Start your preparation with ncert books of 10th standard on various subjects like History, Geography, Polity, Science etc. and then go through other books recommended for G.S. It will be better to prepare G.S. Mains first and then for Prelims.For G.S. Mains start your preparation with […]
Current Affairs
Wednesday, July 18th, 2007
The current affairs of india and international current event affairs, are an important part of the general studies paper, both in the mains and the prelims. At the interview current affairs news rules and decides the rank of the candidate and even whether s/he will get through or not. In such a scenario the coverage […]
The Indian Civil Services are organised into two main sections.
* All India Services and* The Central Services.
All India Services:
* Indian Administrative Service (IAS)* Indian Police Service (IPS)* Indian Forest Service (IFS)Central ServicesGroup A:
* Indian Foreign Service (IFS)* Indian Railway Service* Indian Postal Service* Accounts and Auditing Services (including The Indian Audit and Accounts Service, The Indian Civil Accounts Service, The Indian Defence Accounts Service, The Indian Revenue Service.)* Indian Customs and Central Excise* Indian Ordinance Factories Service* Indian Defence Estates Service* Indian Revenue Service* Indian Information Service* Central Trade Services* Central Industrial Security Force
Group B:
* Central Secretariat Services (Section Officer Grade)* Railway Board Secretariat Services (Section Officer Grade)* Armed Forces Headquarters Civil Services (Assistant Civilian Staff Officer Grade)* Customs Appraisers’ Services* The Delhi , Andaman and Nicobar Islands , Lakshadweep , Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli Civil Services* The Delhi , Andaman and Nicobar Islands , Lakshadweep , Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli Police Services* Pondicherry Civil Services* State Civil Services
The categories of services to which candidates are selected through the SCS examination are as under:
* State Civil Services, Class-I (SCS)* State Police Service, Class-I (SPS).* Block Development Officer.* Tehsildar/Talukadar/Asstt. Collector.* Excise and Taxation Officer.* Distt. Employment Officer.* Distt. Treasury Officer.* Distt Welfare Officer.* Asstt Registrar Cooperative Societies.* Distt. Food and Supplies Controller/Officer.* Any other Class-I/Class-II service notified as per rules by the concerned State.
IAS Papers : Indian Geography
Saturday, July 5th, 2008
Important Facts about IndiaLeast populous district: YanamMost literate district: AizawlLeast literate State: Bihar - 47%Most densely populated State: West BengalMost literate State: KeralaLargest State (areawise): RajasthanSmallest State: GoaMost populous State: UPLeast populous State: SikkimSouthern most point: Indira PointMaximum North-South distance: 3214 kmMaximum East-West distance: 2933 kmGolden quadrilateral connecting 4 metros: distance: 5846 kmMajor Ports on […]
Read Effectively
IAS Papers : Tips for Preliminary Exam Preparation
Monday, March 31st, 2008
The civil services examination is basically a test to choose suitable administrators. It tests the candidate right from the stage when one starts the preparation. One common misconception about the prelims is that it is a test of facts and figures. This is not so. A candidate should have the right frame of mind and […]
IAS Papers : How to do Proper Study?
Wednesday, September 5th, 2007
The main thing to be kept in mind is the choice of study material. It is a wise option to just refer to few standard books to get an deep understanding of the subject. Reading from too many books will do more harm than good.Lastly it is good to be selective while preparing for a […]
Part B - Main Examination - Optional Subjects
Paper-I
One of the Indian Languages to be selected by the candidate from the 18 languages included in the VIIIth Schedule to the Constitution (Qualifying Paper)
300 Marks
Paper-II
English (Qualifying Paper)
300 Marks
Paper-III
Essay
200 Marks
Papers IV & V
General Studies (300 Marks for each paper)
600 Marks
Papers VI, VII, VIII & IX
Any two subjects (each having 2 papers) to be selected from the prescribed optional subjects (300 marks for each paper)
1200 Marks
Total Marks for Written Examination

2000 Marks
Interview Test

300 Marks
Grand Total

2300 Marks

Current affairs, is the mainstay of the civil service examination, what with one portion of the exam dedicated to general studies. The current affairs of india and international current event affairs, are an important part of the general studies paper, both in the mains and the prelims. At the interview current affairs news rules and decides the rank of the candidate and even whether s/he will get through or not. In such a scenario the coverage of current affairs in india as well as current world affairs, becomes an important part of your preprations.
For the very purpose of getting you ready for the challenge that is Current Affairs In India, we are covering the 2008 current affairs including politics current affair, current affair news, science current affairs, general knowledge current affair, current government affair and international current affairs. Only studying India's current affairs or political current affairs is not sufficient as you have to cover international events and current affairs along with the Indian current affairs, as well as those in the field of science and sports.
International Current Affairs & Events

Neel Kashkari-an Indian American to look over the financial crises of Wall Street
Global market heads towards recovery
Serious Financial crises and world economy
Zardari becomes President of Pakistan
Georgia snaps diplomatic ties with Russia
Barack Obama, McCain and the American elections.
Beijing Olympics close with a dazzling show
What is Russian Georgian Conflict basically?
Joseph Biden is vice-presidential candidate of Obama
Musharraf resigns from Pakistan's Presidentship
Russia plans pull out of Georgia
Russia Georgia hostility
Safeguards pact endorsed by IAEA chief
Pakistan demands nuclear status
Iraq Ban lifted by IOC
Iraq Barred from Summer Olympics
Earthquake hits northern Japan
Hurricane Dolly causes havoc
Obama's tour to Afghanistan
"Bush a total failure" says Pelosi
Obama begins with 7 point lead against McCain
Iran's test fires more missiles
Iran's missiles test.
G-8 leaders mention of countering global warming
Betancourt and 14 others get freedom
More US Troops for Afghanistan
Mandela’s birthday celebrated with gaiety
Obama contributes for Hillary’s campaign debt
UN Condemns Zimbabwean government.
Al Gore endorses Barack Obama.
Saudi Arabia will increase its oil production.
Rise in Oil Prices.
2008- International Year of Sanitation.
Indian Current Affairs News

Nano roll out decided from Gujarat.
Assam Violence
Attack on Christians
US India Business Council cancels visit to Kolkata
Blasts in Delhi kill around thirty and wound hundreds
Violence in Srinagar
Satyam to pull out of West Bengal
Flood in Assam
The Singur dilemma and the TATA’s dream project.
PM allots 1000 crore for flood hit Bihar
Kosi River creates Havoc in Bihar
The Amarnath crises remains in deadlock
Longest runway in Asia at IGI Airport.
Flights effected due to AAI strike
India to get new undersea cruise missiles
Train mishap- Fire engulfs the coaches
CPM leader Harkishan Surjeet is no more
Blasts in Gujarat
Seven Blasts have taken place in Bangalore
UPA Cabinet Expansion Likely in August
BJP expels its 8 MPs
Lok Sabha speaker shown the exit door of the party
UPA wins confidence vote, set to move on with Nuclear deal
India's draft to IAEA,with clauses
Left formally withdraws support
US stresses on importance of N-deal
Sensex plunges 444 points in early trade
SP leaders in favour of Nuclear Deal
The inflation rises beyond to 11.63 %
Congress gears up for next elections.
Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw funeral held with full honour.
Id Proof Mandatory For Citizens
New Govt Schemes For Minority Women
Science And Technology News

The Big Bang Experiment
Mars Exploration by NASA complete
India’s Prospective Space mission
Finger Prints can diclose what chemical substance handled
Bullet velocity regulated guns now
Petrol shortage? Here’s seems an alternative.
5000 Km Range Agni To Be Tested In 2009
Ancient India Used Nanotech
Sports News & Current Affairs

Indian Boxer Vijender gets bronze
The Phelp's Midas touch-eight gold medals but with grit.
Wrestler Sushil Kumar gets bronze for India
Boxer Akhil loses in quarters
Olympics creating new waves of history
Abhinav Bindra bags first ever individual gold for India in Beijing Olympics
Monika Devi fails Dope test
Anand wins Mainz chess title for 11th time
Vijay Singh wins the WGC Bridgestone
Sharapova will not be in the Beijing Olympics
Asif disqualified for Champions trophy amid doping scandal
Rafael Nadal adorns the Wimbledon crown
Venus William defeats Serena Williams to lift wimbledon title
Spaniards are the champs
Cricket: India Tour in Australia
General Science.Current events of national and international importanceHistory of India and Indian National MovementIndian and World GeographyIndian Polity and EconomyGeneral Mental Ability
Questions on General Science will cover general appreciation and understanding of science including matters of everyday observation and experience, as may be expected of a well educated person who has not made a special study of any particular scientific discipline. In current events, knowledge of significant national and international events will be tested. In History of India, emphasis will be on broad general understanding of the subject in its social, economic and political aspects. Questions on the Indian National Movement will relate to the nature and character of the nineteenth century resurgence, growth of nationalism and attainment of Independence.In Geography, emphasis will be on Geography of India. Questions on the Geography of India will relate to physical, social and economic Geography of the country, including the main features of Indian agricultural and natural resources. Questions on Indian Polity and Economy will test knowledge of the country’s political system and Constitution of India, Panchayati Raj, Social Systems and economic developments in India. On general mental ability, the candidates will be tested on reasoning and analytical abilities.
Candidates will be required to write an essay on a specific topic. The choice of subjects will be given. They will be expected to keep closely to the subject of the essay to arrange their ideas in orderly fashion, and to write concisely. Credit will be given for effective and exact expression
EssayTime Allowed : Three Hours Maximum Marks : 200
Examiners will pay special attention to the candidate's grasp of this material, its relevance to the subject chosen, and to his ability to think constructively and to present his ideas concisely, logically and effectively.Candidate have to write essay on any one topic of the given topics.
Essay-20051. Justice must reach the poor2. The hand that rocks the cradle3. If women ruled the world4. what is real education?5. Terrorism and world peace6. Food security for sustainable national development
Essay-20041. India's Role in Promoting ASEAN Co-operation.2. Judicial Activism and Indian Democracy.3. Whiter Women's Emancipation?4. Globalisation and Its Impact on Indian Culture.5. The Lure of Space.6. Water Resources Should Be Under the Control of Central Government.
Essay-20031. The Masks of New Imperialism.2. How far has democracy in India delivered the goods?3. How should a civil servant conduct himself?4. As civilization advances culture declines.5. There is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so.Sprituality and Scientific temper.
Essay-20021. Modern Technological Education and human values.2. Search for truth can only be a spiritual problem.3. If youth knew, if age could.4. The paths of glory lead but to the grave.5. Privatisation of Higher Education in India.6. Responsibility of media in democracy.Essay-20011. What have we gained from our democratic set-up?2. My vision of an ideal world order.3. The march of science and the erosion of human value.4. Irrelevance of the classroom.5. The pursuit of excellence6. Empowerment alone cannot help our women.
The essay paper (200 marks) in the civil services main examination is crucial in determining the final outcome/ selection and ranking. It is critical because it is a compulsory paper and its score is incorporated in computing the total. It is decisive because there is no specialisation in an essay and so no aspirant can not claim expertise, unlike optional subjects. Finally, an essay is a paper, which does not have a reservoir of definitive information as in the case of general studies. All this constitutes a challenge. It is vital to understand that an essay is a reflection of the personality - ideas, views, analysis, assessments and inferences, values, attitude, aptitude, orientation and communication (written) abilities, all the attributes that are wanted by UPSC in an aspirant. An essay is considered a complete composition. The essentials of essay writing would be the format (framework, structure), information (content, substance), language (expression, presentation), and logic (analysis and information). The conventional design of looking at essay writing in terms of the introduction, body and conclusion is only the format. Although, this is fundamental to essay writing, the concept of an essay is quite intricate. An essay is expected to be a topical text that is self-explanatory and comprehensive, concise, composite and unambiguous, informative and logical. For every effective composition one should ideally begin with clarifying the purpose of the composition to oneself. This is true about all written and spoken communication. It's best that this principle be applied to essay writing. Although, the question cues that are recommended at this point may appear archaic, they are useful and often overlooked. At every critical juncture, while writing a topical text all applicable queries must be asked to oneself about the issue in question, e.g. who, what, where, when, why, how? These questions would obtain answers that would make the text organised and accurate and also ensure that no aspect has been omitted. Proficiency in applying this principle, i.e. the appropriate choice of questions, will come with extensive practise, periodic evaluation and critical analysis. The format comprises:
An impact-oriented thematic introduction containing the core conceptual scheme, the defining criteria, the central idea, etc.
A series of paragraphs containing arguments based on information, analysis and systematic inter-connectivity
An overall impressive synoptic presentation or an effective conclusion or a final inference.
The introduction is the opening part of the essay and should be confined to a paragraph, especially since, unlike a book, the introduction of an essay is not captioned. The introductory paragraph is expected to introduce the topic, and wherever necessary, explain the central theme or idea, basic or core concepts, and definitional criteria. The introduction should arouse interest and generate curiosity in the mind of the reader, be it an examiner. The main text of an essay, after the introductory part is over, essentially is a systematic organisation of information based on a consistent methodology. It deals with the topic and related issues to be addressed, the correlation of facts, figures, ideas, views, concepts; an in-depth, systematic, coherent analysis based on the topic leading to logical inferences; as well as making (if it is required) plausible projections and providing with (if necessary) viable solutions. The text of the composition must develop, support and explain the main ideas stated in your introduction or thesis paragraph. As the text draws close to the conclusion, the essay should have reached the stage of 'critical mass', a sort of a climax. The conclusion, a summary, should express the essence of the essay. It should not contain any fresh evidence, facts or figures. Here are some help tools for tackling Essay in the UPSC exams, ranging from the syllabus to reading list and other tips. These resources on Essay also includes IAS Question Papers of Essay. We wish you to adopt the best strategy and become successful. We try our best to provide as many resources for your prepration as possible, but if you can add to this list please feel free to send us links or matter.
Mains Syllabus of Essay Question Papers of Essay Suggested Strategy for Essay Suggested Readings for Essay
Sample Essays
If Youth knew if Age could The Game of Politics Secularism in India
Contest Essays for May & June 2008
India Recently Launched Multiple Satellites- Are We Making Enough Progress ? - M.Pratap Kumar
India Recently Launched Multiple Satellites- Are We Making Enough Progress ? - Yoganathan.B
Shopping and Spending - is India's Youth loosing economic balance?- Akshay Madane
Shopping and Spending - is India's Youth loosing economic balance?- Sowmiya.R
Shopping and Spending - is India's Youth loosing economic balance?- Madhuri Sankella
Super star India : From incredible to unstoppable - Shoba De - Nirmala Guru
Super star India : From incredible to unstoppable - Shoba De - Rai Chakrabarti
Contest Essays for April 2008
India recently launched multiple satellites - Are we making enough progress ?M.PRATAP KUMAR Inflation –can it be controlled in the present world scenario. - ANITA SAGAR Maoists to form govt. in Nepal, how it will affect India. - Maria Alby INFLATION: Can It Be Controlled In The Present World Scenario? - Animesh Choudhury Winner (Rs.250) INFLATION: Can It Be Controlled In The Present World Scenario? - Maria Alby
Contest Essays for March 2008
The Royal Bengal Tiger - Are we doing enough? -Swagala Tarafdar The Royal Bengal Tiger - Are we doing enough? -Animesh Choudhury IPL - Will it do any good for Sports in India? -Sugita Kumari IPL - Will it do any good for Sports in India? -S.Das Mumbai for Mumbaikars -Jennifer Keishing
Contest Essays for Jan 2008
60 years of Independence - India's achievements -Shweta Verma Sarcar 60 years of Independence - India's achievements -Syed Tahseen Raza> 60 years of Independence - India's achievements -Santoshi P 60 years of Independence - India's achievements -V. Aruna Kumari 60 years of Independence - India's achievements -Animesh Choudhury How should a civil servant conduct himself? -Nisha Nair.G.N How should a civil servant conduct himself? -Megha Chitkara As civilization advances culture declines -Harichandana Devalla a As civilization advances culture declines -Pradeep B.V.H., Importance of Indo-US Nuke Deal -Mani Vanan,
Contest Essays For March/April 2007
SEZ related land grabbing problems -Rahul AggarwalFarmer Suicides - Harichandana Devalla
Contest Essays For Feb 2007
Shilpa Shetty Case: Is the Media playing GOD? -Arindam Banerjee Does Cannibalism still exist? -Arindam Banerjee Does Cannibalism still exist? -Purnima Gogna Town Planning The Growing Difficulties-Soumyajit Sarcar Does Cannibalism still exist? -Rudra Prasanna Mohapatra Cannibalism -Lalitt sai Does Cannibalism still exist? -Mouli Sharma
Contest Essays For December 2006
India's Nuclear Deal with US- Soumyajit Sarkar India's Nuclear Deal with US- Shiv Kumar
Contest Essays For November 2006
Is applying the creamy layer to SC & ST is justified?- Shiv Kumar The New Child Labour Law- Mahesh Rao
Contest Essays For October 2006
Dengu, Chikungunya - Is India Prepared To Protect The Health Of Its Citizens?- Somyajit Sarcar Should The Death Penalty Be Banned For Mohammed Afzal?- S. MURUGARAJA Should The Death Penalty Be Banned For Mohammed Afzal?- Manish Sati
Contest Essays For September 2006
Does Truth Always Triumph - Amandeep Kaur Kapur Is increasing the number of seats the solution to OBC Quota - Aparna. K Is increasing the number of seats the solution to OBC Quota - Neeti Srivastava Is increasing the number of seats the solution to OBC Quota - Anita Sagar Truth Always Triumphs - Vemulakonda Namita Does Truth Always Triumph - Renita George

Some well written essay Links
Secularism In India – The Inconclusive Debate - Link Contributed by Pramod Kumar
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60 years of Independence - India's achievements
Typically speaking, if a person reaches 60 years of age, he is labeled as an "Old Crippled". One can construe the picture of a man who is bed-ridden, invalid and too old to respond to any kind of treatment. He just lay aside, cherishing its blooming youthful days or he employs his time by playing with his grandchildren, but now the things have changed.
I would like to narrate you a story about a country which is 60 years old and still very young, vivacious, highly engertic and is working enthusiastically towards its betterment. It is "OUR COUNTRY INDIA". We never know how time sweeps. India was free from the clutches of Britshers in 1947. We still remember those stalwarts who sacrificed their lives to free us from Britisher's cage enabling us to fly freely, independently in the air. Now, for a change I will not again repeat the history of how India got is Independence. We all know and have studied umpteen numbers of times about it in our History books. We studied what all "Our Father of the Nation"- "Mahatma Gandhi" did, we all our aware of the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy and etc. etc.
We all normally says that Britshers ruled our country - they exploited us . But what they have given us is UNITY. They united our country, we remained united till there time only, What happened after that ? - In Most of the families the two brothers are at daggers drawn with each other. Every one under the sun has become self-centered. After all who has the time to think about the welfare, prosperity of our nation ? Who is dutiful ? - No this is not what I am saying but what I heard in RANG DE BASANTI. Besides, this they have provided Tea - Coffee Gardens, and had given us the language ENGLISH which has now become a foreign inlingua. Aren't we people including me also is ashamed of speaking Hindi in public places or else people who don't know English are being labeled as an ILLITERATE people. But what is wrong in that, I completely agree to this that Yes, English is our mother tongue. Why? Don't you want to grab a job in multinational Company? How will we clear the interview? How will we become great personalities? We all should avail this opportunity in our 60 years of Independence to express our heartfelt gratitude towards them for giving this foreign language.
We all curse Britshers, but become eagerly excited, over-enthusiastic when we get an opportunity to go abroad, like to the Big Apple. After who wants to stay in a Country endowed with unemployment, extreme poverty , filthiness, corruption , dowry deaths and all other social evils, but remember the case of Kiranjit Walia - who beared the virulent atrocities of her husband for 10 years , no not in a diminutive village but in a country like London. Eventually was free and London people persistently protested against the government to release her, Even Goerge Bush wife awared her as She emanated valourness, courageousness. Her dauntless act to rescue herself was truly remarkable. She won Kudos, praises etc. But what if the same thing would have happenend in India? Remember that case of a girl who was just about to get married, her in-laws demanded dowry on the verge, As She was unbearable to see the sight of how her father was accousting, Her doughty act of calling cops just after few hours when she was about to tie the nuptial knot had labeled her as the most astonishingly talented women. Though being the only incident , has instilled, infused a spirit of bravery, dauntlessness, valor into female members. Yes India has done progess but still a the disease of discrimination between male and female still exits. After 60 years, India has got its women president Ms.Pratibha Devi Patik. Now we all assess her rule, her power what changes she will going to make instead of saying what has to be done , we all seriously hope that she will says what we have done ?
What makes a country good and great? - It is the people, their power of knowledge, caliber, and perseverance. Their highly intellectual minds, Decisiveness, their open and above board dealings with others. A country is empty if there are no people. We the people form our Government, We the people rule not our lives but the whole life of our stupendous country. We the people makes or mars the present, future of our country. We the people mould , shape our country in whatever manner we want to. Like, a one person cannot contribute significantly towards the prosperity, success of the country in the same manner it is not in the hands of one person to change it. It is the collective responsibility of all and sundry to make a gloriously bright, radiant future and to be linked together in its weal and woe. We all know that it sounds the same and hackneyed but as a matter of fact this is the only transparent and solid truth. It is we the people only who back-bite and says bitchy things about our country, thus this is the major reason why our country is lacking far behind and is deprived of numerous facilities as compared to others. We all should become at home in this fact.
As our Country has attained its 60 years of Independence and the prime ministers starting from Jawaharlal Nehru to Dr.Mannohan Singh speechifyies about the developments that they will do in the fields of agriculture, industry, infrastructure, education etc and the various measures implemented towards the economic growth of our country. To start, first I am dying to see that lucky day when, I don't which prime minister will say and point out the developments made in these sectors. That their longevity of speech should not reflect about the planned tasks but about the accomplished tasks - that will be the biggest achievement of our country. Quite bummed, that so far no one has said so.
The Visible achievements made by our Country are as follows:-
METROS: - Eventually, Our Government has once utilized its funds in an appropriate manner. Metros have made our lives relatively easier as the gap of communication has been minimized. The person does not have to wait for hours for buses. This is indeed a big achievement, and various other metros projects which are coming up, our country is giving business to French Government, thus ameliorating our relations.
TECHNOLOGY: - In terms of technology, the high emergence of mobile companies, nowadays even a scrap or a vegetable vendoe possess a mobile phone. The trade of mobile phone contributes 50 % towards our economic growth. Tate has created people's car of 1 crore. They are incredibly great achievements in itself.
ECONOMY :- With RBI reducing the interest rates, Sunil Mittal acquiring Arcelor, Tate acquiring Corus, with the emergence of SEZ zones , many foreign companies intruding into India to set up their business, is in itself a great achievement , but various prons and cons attached to it.
RESEARCH: - Recently Ranbaxy lost over Pfizzer over a new drug, Scientists have discovered a new planet, a star etc.
SPACE: - India has sent a space shuttle into the space. What is the outcome of that ?
INDO - USA DEAL is not an achievement till yet, as the major, intense, hot dispute going between the left and the Congress for their 123 agreement has put the deal in a state of uncertainty, in a high suspense. Prime Minister has strictly said LIKE it or LUMP it. But what if the Government will dissolve and the coalition government will be formed.
ENTERTAINMENT: - Shipa Shetty winning the Big Brother Show, making herself an international personality in abroad, thus making of our country proud on British grounds is a great achievement in the entertainment field.
EDUCATION SECTOR: - In a quick recap of our 2007 budget which lays emphasis on education sector is so far in the process.
INFRASTRUCTURE: - No doubt the infrastructure of our country has shown immense improvement with the emergence of highways, toll bridge, Metros etc. I want to conclude by saying that achievement means the thing which we have successfully acquired, attain, obtain with our hard , honest and hearty works. As mentioned above also we all are essentially self-centred, terribly selfish human beings , we want to play because we want to make centuries, we to shine in our lives, we want to create history by making our new records, but the day we start playing as a team , not for our individual selves we are sure to win a world cup. Finally three cheers for our women section , After all India has its first women President "Pratibha Patil". Now let us see what is her contribution towards the development of our country.
Shweta Verma

Here is a list of subjects for IAS/UPSC exams. Under each subject is provided reources regarding the subject that includes prelims and mains IAS syllabus as well as question papers, strategy and suggested readings for the subject. The IAS Syllabus and other services like the IPS and Income Tax is the same, as it is a single exam conducted by UPSC and the syllabus is also set by the UPSC.
Main Examination Syllabus Prelims Examination Syllabus UPSC Question Papers IAS Strategy Sugested Reading How to Prepare Notes How to Write Answers How to Read How To Prepare For Prelims Time Management Gaining Mental Power for UPSC
UPSC PLAN OF EXAMINATION:
The Civil Services Examination consists of two successive stages: (I) Civil Services Preliminary Examination; and (ii) Civil Services Main Exam(Written & Interview) for selection of candidates
UPSC Interview Questions 2008
Part A - UPSC Preliminary Examination - Optional Subjects

General Studies Essay Agriculture Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science Botany Chemistry Civil Engineering Commerce Economics Electrical Engineering Geography Geology Indian History Law
Mathematics Mechanical Engineering Medical Science Philosophy Physics Political Science Psychology Public Administration Sociology Statistics Zoology
Part B - UPSC Main Examination - Optional Subjects

Agriculture Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science Botany Chemistry Civil Engineering Commerce Economics Electrical Engineering Geography Geology Indian History Law HYPERLINK "Mathematics/index.html"Mathematics Management Mechanical Engineering Medical Science Philosophy Physics Political Science Psychology Public Administration Sociology Statistics Zoology HYPERLINK "Anthropology/index.html"Anthropology
Arabic Assamese Bengali Bodo Chinese Dogri English French German Gujarati Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Konkani Maithili Malayalam HYPERLINK "Manipuri/index.html"Manipuri Marathi Nepali Oriya Pali Persian Punjabi Russian Sanskrit Santali Sindhi Tamil Telugu Urdu
Home >> Subject >> Urdu >> Mains Syllabus
SOME SUGGESTED READINGS FOR YOU :
by Subhash C Kashyap ---1. Our Constitution 2. Our Parliament3. Perspective on Constitution (ED)
by P.M Bakshi -- 1.Constitution
by D.D. Basu --1. Introduction to the Constitution
OthersIIPA JournalThe HinduFrontline
SUGGESTED READINGS TOPIC WISE :
Political Theory and Indian Politics
George H. Sabine ( Western political theory)
Eddy Ashrivatham (Political theory)
C.L. Wayper (Political thought)
O.P. Gauba (An introduction to political thought)
R.M. Bhagat (Western political thought)
Amal Roy and Mohit Bhattacharya (political theory, ideas and institutions)
S.P. Varma (Modern political theory)
J.C. Jauhary (Comparative politics)
A.S. Sandhu (Political theory)
Pukharaj Jain (Political thought)
Indian Constitution And Politics
M.V. Paylee (Indian Constitution)
D.D Basu (An introduction to Indian constitution)
V.N. Shukla (Constitution of India, couple of chapters are really relevant)
A.C. Kapoor (Comparative Governments)
V.P. Varma (Indian political theory)
K.R. Bombwal (Comparative constitutions)
Bipin Chandra (Freedom struggle)
Simit Sarkar (Modern India)
A.R. Desai (Social background of Indian Nationalism)
Paul Brass (Politics in India since independence)
Independent India : First Fifty Years - Hiranyamay Kelkar
Indian foreign policy agenda for 21st century (1998 Foreign service institute) - Lalit Mansingh
India's foreign policy in a changing world (1999) - V.P. Dutt
People's right and the state in the third world - Manjooran Mohanty & Partha Mukherjee
World politics in the twentieth century - Paul Kenedy
Nuclear India (1998) Jasjit Singh
Suggested Readings For Prelims
Section A: 1.(a) (b) (c) 'Political Theory', —Eddy Ashirvatham'Political Theory' —O.P. Gauba'Political Theory' —Amal Ray, Mohit Bhattacharya.2.(a) (b) (c) As above(d) 'Comparative Politics' —R. ChilkoteSection B:1.Political Theory —Amal Ray & Mohit Bhattachary.2.Introduction to Indian Constitution —D.D. Basu3.(a) India's Struggle for Independence —Bipan Chandra.(b) Introduction to Indian constitution —D.D. Basu.(c) Our Parliament —S.C. Kashyap(d) Our Constitution —S.C. Kashyap(e) Comparative Govt. & Politics — V.N. Khanna(f) Comparative Govt. & Politics —K.R. BombwalSuggested Readings For Mains
Paper I Section A 1.(a) A History of Political thought—Subrata Mukherjee, Susheela Ramaswamy(b) A History of Political thought —J.P. Suda(c) For Manu & Kautilya : Foundations of Indian Political thought — V.R. Mehta2.(a) Modern Political Theory —S.P. Verma(b) Modern Political Theory —Madan Gandhi3.(a) Political Theory —Eddy Ashirvatham(b) Political Theory —J.C. Johri(c) Political Theory —Ray & Bhattacharya(d) Political Theory —O.P. GaubaPaper I Section B1.(a) Comparative Govt. & Politics —J.C. Johri(a) Comparative Govt. & Politics —Ronald Chilkote2.(a) Modern Indian Political Thinkers —V.P. Verma(b) Foundations of Indian Political Thought —V.R. Mehta(c) Indian Govt. and Politics —A.S. Narang(c) Indian Govt. and Politics —J.R. Siwach(c) Indian Govt and Politics —M.P. Singh, Himanshu Roy(d) Politics in India —Rajani Kothari(e) Govt. and Politics of India —W.H. Morris Jones
Paper II Section A1.(a) Theoretical aspects of International Politics —Mahendra Kumar(b) Politics among Nations —Morganthu(c) International Politics —SchumanPaper II Section B1.(a) International Politics —Bookhives(b) Regular subscription of Frontline & World Focus (magazine)Majority of Books referred for both mains and Prelims Syllabus are availabe in HIndi Medium also.
Strategy for Political Scirnce
Political science is a dynamic and ever –changing subject. Candidates aspiring to opt for it should be more aware of the shift in focus than the skeletal changes in the revised syllabus. It helps candidates in updating their knowledge of the current events and provides a fresh perspective on the burning domestic and foreign policy issues. About half of the general study paper is basically related to the two papers of political science for the main examination. Besides, that be the best subject to ensure a sound sleep during the interview days simply because you have readymade answer for almost all the question being asked by the board members.
Key StrategyUPSC move of revision of syllabus of political science has generated golden opportunity to score especially high marks in the subject. In fact as of now, even those students who don’t have the background of political science have fared better in many respects. Provided one becomes dynamic and innovative enough to evolve new scientific strategy being in conformity with the changed requirement of the new syllabus.
Since almost all purely factual aspects of the syllabus have been deleted. On the other hand, certain current topical themes have been added under new syllabus thereby making study more relevant. For instance, after revision major highlights of the syllabus are feminism, globalization, terrorism, environment, nuclear threat/nuclear proliferation, recent developments in Indian Foreign Policy etc. The purpose of this write- up, however, is to make you warmed about the subject in the context of revised syllabus.
Political Science even prior to revision of the syllabus too was a bit scientific nature but under new syllabus exceptionally great deals of current topical applied themes have been included. In the light of the revised syllabus, certain amount of exposure to the relevant contemporary emerging issues (such as globalization, environment etc.) EMERGING TRENDS IN INDIAN GOVT & POLITICS SECTION
(a) All Indian nationalists (such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Tilak, Saverkar,Jayprakash Narain,Subhash Chandra Bose,Ambedkar,Ram Manohar Lohia) except Gandhi and Nehru have been deleted (from paper 1 section B topic no 1 of the previous syllabus)
(b) Factual themes from topic no.4 paper 1 section B of previous syllabus have been completely deleted without any addition.
c)Major area of focus under new syllabus is on applied dimensions. For instance actual working of principal organs of the Union Government and those of the state government (paper 1 topic no 4(a) & (b). Changing nature of centre- state relations, inter-state disputes (paper 1 topic -7) (ii) Certain themes purely related to Indian Economy (i.e. G.S.) have been incorporated under new syllabus. For instance planning and economic development-Nehruvian and Gandhian perspectives, role of planning and public sector, green revolution, land reforms and agrarian relations, liberalization and economic reforms. iii) Similarly certain emerging issues/trends too have been added. iv)Subaltern themes/movements such as civil liberties and human rights movements, women’s movements, environmentalist movement (paper 1, topic no.11) are the major highlights of the new syllabus These new social movements( (i.e. G.S) constitute major part of G.S. & essay paper as well interview plan.
Emerging Trends In Paper –I Political Theory section
Under new syllabus of political science paper I, political theory section has been made to be exceptionally easier and simpler wherein specialized background of the subject. For instance following topics have been completely deleted from paper I, political theory.State sovereignty- Marxist and pluralistic theories, globalization and the state (topic no 3). Theories of political culture – Culture and politics in third world countries (topic no 5) Theories of political economy – classical and contemporary (topic no 6)ii) Similarly from topic no 8 almost all theorists (such as pareto,mosca,mitchels,C.wright mills,weber) except two scholars gramsci & Hannah arendt have been deleted from the syllabus without any addition at all.iii) Moreover, from topic no 10 out of four Marxian theorists (in the old syllabus),exept Karl Marx all three Marxian scholars such as Lenin, Mao and Rosa Luxemberg have been deleted without any additioniv)Contemporary theme like feminism has been added (under topic no 2 & topic no 8) which is otherwise relevant for the purpose of G.S.,essay as well as interviewv)Instead of theories of human rights (paper 1,section A topic no 4 of previous syllabus),now under new syllabus merely "concept of human rights is to be studiedvi) Further exceptionally easier and simpler conception of justice under new syllabus is supposed to be studied with specific focus on John Rawls and communitarian critiques.vii) Meanwhile under paper I topic no 9 (i.e. Indian political thought) few scholars have been added by replacing few ither less important scholars.
Now new syllabus constitutes following five major discoursesAncient Indian discourses – Dharmashastra and ArthashastraDalit Discourse –B.R.Ambedkar and Buddhist traditionIslamic Discourse –Sir Syed Ahmed KhanHindu Discourse-Sri Aurobindo GhoshGandhian Discourse- M.K. GandhiHumanist Discourse – M.N.RoyEmerging Trends in paper IIUnder paper II change of syllabus constitutes following major emerging themesApplied dimensions of state (paper II,topic no 2),Politicl parties,pressure group and social movements (paper II,topic no 3) are supposed to be studied under new syllabus ii) operational dynamics of globalization (paper II,topic no 4,topic no 6) is another major highlight iii) Infact more current topical themes related to G.S. and essay paper have been incorporated under new syllabus topic no 7 (a) & (c) iv) Similarly fair amount of assessment of role of the UN in practice is desirable under new syllabus with due focus on the Need for UN-reforms (topic no 9) v)Finally a new topic under the broad headline of Recent developments in Indian foreign policy.India’s position on the recent crisis in Afghanistan,Iraq and West Asia,growing relations with US and Israel,vision of a new world order (paper II),topic no 8) has been added with is otherwise purely a part of current affairs (i.eG.S.)
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Political Science is a dynamic and ever-changing subject. Candidates aspiring to opt for it should be more aware of the shift in focus than the skeletal changes in the revised syllabus. Opting for Aristotle's Master science, the aspirant should master the techniques to make best use of these changes like a crafty politician. The advantages of picking political science as a favourite optional are manifold. It helps candidates in updating their knowledge of the current events and provides a fresh perspective on the burning domestic and foreign policy issues. About half of the general studies paper is vitally related to the two papers of political science for the main examination. Besides, that is the best subject to ensure a sound sleep during the interview days simply because you have readymade answer for virtually all the question being asked by the board members.
The recent years' trend also reveals that the candidates with political science as an optional have fared better in many respects. The rate of success is going higher and higher. The purpose of this write- up, however, is to make you w armed about the subject in the context of revised syllabus.
A cursory view of the changed syllabus indicates towards the modification at two levels: (a) new addition, and (b) shift in focus. Interestingly, what appear to be additions are really the extended and focused parts of the existing topics. This means that students will have to prepare for the same old themes but in a changed context. This sounds appropriate as much water has flown down the Gangas since the previous paper was set up. More so in the context of political science where changes start reflecting realities, both at the domestic and external planes. The centralised polity of India has finally given way to coalition politics, and now it seems the coalition culture is here to stay in one way or the other. The rehearsing of International relations paper was highly imperative in the context of Collapse of Soviet Union, the end of cold war, and the emergence of a new world order shaped and designed by the United States-led Unipolar World.
We have seen a lot of face lifting and reading, real changes are not drastic and metamorphic. The topics that were included as subtopics in the old syllabus have been given a separate and independent status in the revised course. Yet, a few substantial changes are the additions like Nationalism and Internationalism and the theories of international relations, primarily corresponding with the international relations paper in the Mains. So far freshers opting for political science used to get abruptly exposed to the strangers zone called international politics. Now, they will have some idea about the world political scenario with the help of the new topics.
A brief survey of the significant additions in the section (A) of the political science paper reveals that a couple of unexplored areas have been taken in. The meaning, nature and scope of political science and its relations with other subjects; concepts of nationalism and internationalism, major theories of International Relations; .Social movements; and the bureaucracy are the major themes brought under focus in the revised syllabus.
Section (B) of the prelims has also registered a few additions signifying both structural and spiritual shift. Approaches to the study of governments; classification of political systems; the constituent assembly, the party system in India, the interaction of government and the local-self governments; bureaucracy and development, and the challenges to the Indian Democracy are major additions. The students should specifically focus on the themes like 73rd constitutional amendment, the political parties and the bureaucracy. It would be advisable to tell about the clarity of concepts and the grasp of knowledge both in vertical and horizontal dimensions to qualify the prelims. More you have read, more facts will strike your memory while searching for the right answer through the process of examination. That is why, a serious and hard working student proves better in answering the objective type test questions than an ill-organised and poor in knowledge candidate.
Preliminary Examination of Civil Services Exam Section-A1. Political Science : Nature & scope of the discipline, relationship with allied disciplines like History, Economics, Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology. 2. Meaning of Politics :Approaches to the study of Politics. 3. Key Concepts :State, Soceity, Sovereignty, Power, Citizenship, Nation, Global order and Imperialism. 4. Political Ideas : Rights, Liberty, Equality, Justice, Rule of Law. Civil Soceity Swaraj, Revolution, Democratic Participation. 5. Democracy :Meaning and Theories of Democracy, Electoral system, Forms of Representation & Participation, Political accountability. 6. Political Ideologies : Liberalism, Neoliberalism, Marxism, Socialism, Fascism, Gandhism. 7. Party System and Political Process : Therories of Party System, National and regional parties, Political Parties in the Third World. Patterns of coalition politics, interest and pressure groups. 8. Forms of Government :Parliamentary and Presidential. Federal & unitary Modes of decentralisation. 9. Bureaucracy Concept : Theories, Weber and critiques of Bureaucracy. 10. Theories of Development : Meaning and various approaches. Concept and Theories of underdevelopment Debates in the Third World. 11. Social Movements :Meaning, Theories & Forms, Role of Environmental Feminist Peasant & workers movements, Role of Non Government organisation. 12. Nationalism and Internationalism :13. Major theories of International relations :Realist Marxist, Systems & Decision making & Game theory. 14. State & the Global order :Neo-Liberalism, globalisation, structural adjustment, regional economic integration, Nature and Impact of globalisation. Section-BIndian Government and politics1. Approaches to the study of Governments :Comparative historical, legal institutional, political economy and political sociology, approaches. 2. Classification of Political systems :Democratic and Authoritarian, characteristics of Political systems in the third world. 3. Typologies of constitutions : Basic features of these constitutions & governments : including U.K., USA. France, Germany, China, and South Africa. 4. Constitutional development : in India during British Rule-A historical perspective. 5. Constituent Assembly : philosophical and socio-economic dimensions. Salient features of the Indian Constitution. 6. Nature of Indian federalism :Centre-state relations, legislative, administrative, financial and political; politics of regional move and National Integration. 7. Fundamental Rights :Constitutional provisions and political dynamics. Judicial Interpretations and socio political realities; Fundamental Duties. 8. The Union Executive :President, Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers, Constitutional provisions & framework and political trends. 9. Parliament :Powers and functions of the Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha; Parliamentary Committees; Functioning of the Parliamentary system in India. 10. The Judiciary : The Supreme Court , Judicial Review Judicial Activism, Public Intrest Litigation; Judicial Reforms. 11. The State Executive :Governor, Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers; Constitutional Provisions and Political trends. 12. Indian Party System :Evolution and Contemporay trends; coalition government at the Centre and States, pressure groups in Indian politics. 13. The interaction of Government & Scientific & Technology business :Previous and now their inter relationship and changing roles in Society, Elites, Role of Pressure groups class and voluntary associations in society. 14. Local Government & Politics :Panchayti Raj and Municipal Government, structure power & functions. Political realities, significance of 73rd and 74th Amendements, role of women in Panchayats. 15. Bureaucracy and Development : Post-colonial India; its changing role in the context of liberatis after, bureauratic Accountability. 16. Challenges to Indian Democracy :
a) Communalism Regionalism violence, criminalisation and corruption. b) Regional disparities, environmental degradation, illiteracy, Mass Poverty, Population, growth, caste oppressions and socio economic inequalities among backward classes.
Top
Main Examination of Civil Services Exam Paper-I
Political Theory and Indian Politics
1. Political Theory: meaning and approaches.
2. Theories of the State: Liberal, Neo-liberal, Marxist, Pluralist, Post-colonial and feminist.
3. Justice: Conceptions of justice with special reference to Rawl’s theory of justice and its communitarian critiques.
4. Equality: Social, political and economic; relationship between equality and freedom; Affirmative action.
5. Rights: Meaning and theories; different kinds of rights; concept of Human Rights.
6. Democracy: Classical and contemporary theories; different models of democracy – representative, participatory and deliberative.
7. Concept of power, hegemony, ideology and legitimacy.
8. Political Ideologies: Liberalism, Socialism, Marxism, Fascism, Gandhism and Feminism.
9. Indian Political Thought : Dharamshastra, Arthashastra and Buddhist traditions; Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Sri Aurobindo, M.K. Gandhi, B.R. Ambedkar, M.N. Roy . Section-B Indian Government and Politics1. Indian Nationalism: Dadabhai Naoroji, Tilak, Savarkar, Gandhi, Jayaprakash Narain, Nehru, Subhas Bose, Ambedkar, Ram Manohar Lohia. 2. Nature and struggle of Indian freedom struggle : From constitutionalism to Mass Satyagraha, Revolutionary movements Non Co-operation, Civil disobedience and Quit India, Indian Naval uprising, Indian National Army; role of women in freedom struggle. 3. Socio- economic dimensions of the nationalist movement: The communal question and the demand for partition; backward caste movements, Trade union and Peasant movements, Civil rights movement. 4. Landmarks in Constitutional Development during British Rule: Morley-Minto Reforms; Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms; Simon Commission; Government of India Act, 1935; Cripps Mission : Indian Independence Act, 1947. 5. Salient Features of the Indian Constitution: The Preamble, Fundamental Rights and Duties, Directive Principles; federalism, parliamentary system; amending procedures; judicial review. 6. The Executive System in theory and practice: President, Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers; Governor, Chief Minister and the State Council of Ministers. The Bureaucracy. 7. Role and function of the Parliament and Parlimentary Committee-Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha; changing socio economic profile. 8. The Supreme Court and the High Courts; Judicial Activism; PIL. 9. Statutory institutions/commis sions-UPSC, Election Commission, Comptroller and Auditor General, Backward Classes Commission, National Commission for women; National Human Rights Commission; Minorities Commission. 10. Party system : ideology and social base of parties; fragmentation and regionalisation. Pressure groups; patterns of coalition politics; trends in electoral behaviour. 11. Class, caste, ethnicity and gender in Indian politics; politics of regionalism, communalism, backward class and Dalit movements, Tribal people movements, struggle for gender justice. 12. Planning and Economic Development : Role of the Planning Commission; Planning in the era of liberalisation; political dimensions of economic reforms. 13. Grassroots democracy : Panchayati Raj and municipal government; significance of 73rd and 74th Amendements. Grass root movement and women's empowerment.
Paper - II Comparative Politics and International Relations Section-A Comparative Analysis and International Politics 1. Approaches to the study of comparative politics : traditional approaches; political economy, political sociology or political system approaches; Nature of political process in the Third World. 2. The Modern State :Evolution, the contemporary trends in the advanced industrial countries and the third world. 3. Development :Strategies and contemporary discourse. 4. Concepts of International politics :Power, national interest, balance of power, national security, collective security and peace. 5. Theories of International politics Marxist, Realist, Systems, Decision-making and Game Theory. 6. Determinants of foreign policy : Domestic compulsions, geopolitics, geoeconomics and global order. 7. Origin and contemporary relevance of the Cold War, nature of the post-cold war global order. 8. Major issues of world politics : Cuban Missile Crisis; Vietnam War, Oil Crisis, Afghan Civil War, Gulf War, Collapse of the Soviet Union, Yugoslav Crisis. 9. Non-alignment :Concept and movement; Third World Movements for global justice, Non-alignment in the post cold war era. 10. The evolution of the international economic system-from Bretton woods to WTO, the North-South dimension. 11. International organisations UN and its specialized agencies :International Court of Justice; ILO, UNICEF, WHO UNESCO. 12. Regional, organizations such as the ASEAN, APEC, EU, SAARC, NAFTA 13. Contemporary Global Concerns : Democracy, Human Rights, Ecology, Gender Justice, Global commons, Communication. Section-BIndia and the World 1. Indian Foreign Policy :Historical origins, determinants; the institutions of policy-making; continuity and change. 2. India and the Non-Alignment Movement :Evolution and contemporary relevance. Socio- political basis of non-alignment-domestic and global. 3. Major issues in Indian foreign policy :Sino-Indian Border War (1962); Indo-Pakistan War (1971) and the liberation of Bangladesh; IPKF in Sri Lanka; India as military nuclear power (1998). 4. Conflict and co-operation in South Asia :India's relations with Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal. Regional co-operation and SAARC. Kashmir question in India's foreign policy. 5. India's relation with Africa and Latin America. 6. India and South East Asia; ASEAN. 7. India and the major powers : USA, EU, China, Japan and Russia. 8. India and the UN System : India's role in UN Peace Keeping and global disarmament. 9. India and the emerging international economic order; multilateral agencies-WTO, IMF, IBRD, ADB. 10. India and the question of nuclear weapons : NPT and CTBT.
Paper-I
Answers must be written in Urdu.
Section-A
Development of Urdu Language
a) Development of Indo-Aryan (i) Old Indo-Aryan (ii) Middle Indo Aryan (iii) New Indo Aryan
b) Western Hindi and its dialects Brij Bhasha Khadi Boli, Haryanavi Kannauji, Bundeli-Theories about the origin of Urdu Language
c) Dakhani Urdu-Origin and development, its significant linguistic features.
d) Social and Cultural roots of Urdu language-and its distinctive features.
Script, Phonology, Morphology, Vocabulary.
Section-B
a) Genres and their development : (i) Poetry : Ghazal, Masnavi, Qasida, Marsia, Rubai, Jadid Nazm,
(ii) Prose : Novel, Short Story, Dastan, Drama, Inshaiya, Khutoot, Biography.
b) Significant features of : (i) Deccani, Delhi and Lucknow schools (ii) Sir Syed movement, Romantic movement, Progressive movement, Modernism.
c) Literary Criticism and its development with reference to Hali, Shibli, Kaleemuddin Ahmad, Ehtisham Hussain, Ale-Ahmad Suroor.
d) Essay writing (covering literary and imaginative topics)
Paper-II
Answers must be written in Urdu.
This paper will require first hand reading of the texts prescribed and will be designed to test the candidate's critical ability.
Section-A
1. Mir Amman Bagho-Babar
2. Ghalib Intikhab-e-Khutoot-e Ghalib
3. Mohd. Husain Nairang-e-Khayal Azad
4. Prem Chand Godan
5. Rajendra Singh Apne Dukh Mujhe
Bedi Dedo
6. Abul Kalam Azad Ghubar-e-Khatir

Section-B
1. Mir Intikhab-e-Kalam-e-Mir
(Ed. Abdul Haq.)
2. Mir Hasan Sahrul Bayan
3. Ghalib Diwan-e-Ghalib
4. Iqbal Bal-e-Jibrail
5. Firaq Gul-e-Naghma
6. Faiz Dast-e-Saba
7. Akhtruliman Bint-e-Lamhat

John Dewey was a leading proponent of the American school of thought known as "pragmatism," a view that rejected the dualistic epistemology and metaphysics of modern philosophy in favor of a naturalistic approach that viewed knowledge as arising from an active adaptation of the human organism to its environment. On this view, inquiry should not be understood as consisting of a mind passively observing the world and drawing from this ideas that if true correspond to reality, but rather as a process which initiates with a check or obstacle to successful human action, proceeds to active manipulation of the environment to test hypotheses, and issues in a re-adaptation of organism to environment that allows once again for human action to proceed. With this view as his starting point, Dewey developed a broad body of work encompassing virtually all of the main areas of philosophical concern in his day. He also wrote extensively on social issues in such popular publications as the New Republic, thereby gaining a reputation as a leading social commentator of his time.
1. Life and Works
John Dewey was born on October 20, 1859, the third of four sons born to Archibald Sprague Dewey and Lucina Artemesia Rich of Burlington, Vermont. The eldest sibling died in infancy, but the three surviving brothers attended the public school and the University of Vermont in Burlington with John. While at the University of Vermont, Dewey was exposed to evolutionary theory through the teaching of G.H. Perkins and Lessons in Elementary Physiology, a text by T.H. Huxley, the famous English evolutionist. The theory of natural selection continued to have a life-long impact upon Dewey's thought, suggesting the barrenness of static models of nature, and the importance of focusing on the interaction between the human organism and its environment when considering questions of psychology and the theory of knowledge. The formal teaching in philosophy at the University of Vermont was confined for the most part to the school of Scottish realism, a school of thought that Dewey soon rejected, but his close contact both before and after graduation with his teacher of philosophy, H.A.P. Torrey, a learned scholar with broader philosophical interests and sympathies, was later accounted by Dewey himself as "decisive" to his philosophical development.
After graduation in 1879, Dewey taught high school for two years, during which the idea of pursuing a career in philosophy took hold. With this nascent ambition in mind, he sent a philosophical essay to W.T. Harris, then editor of the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, and the most prominent of the St. Louis Hegelians. Harris's acceptance of the essay gave Dewey the confirmation he needed of his promise as a philosopher. With this encouragement he traveled to Baltimore to enroll as a graduate student at Johns Hopkins University.
At Johns Hopkins Dewey came under the tutelage of two powerful and engaging intellects who were to have a lasting influence on him. George Sylvester Morris, a German-trained Hegelian philosopher, exposed Dewey to the organic model of nature characteristic of German idealism. G. Stanley Hall, one of the most prominent American experimental psychologists at the time, provided Dewey with an appreciation of the power of scientific methodology as applied to the human sciences. The confluence of these viewpoints propelled Dewey's early thought, and established the general tenor of his ideas throughout his philosophical career.
Upon obtaining his doctorate in 1884, Dewey accepted a teaching post at the University of Michigan, a post he was to hold for ten years, with the exception of a year at the University of Minnesota in 1888. While at Michigan Dewey wrote his first two books: Psychology (1887), and Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding (1888). Both works expressed Dewey's early commitment to Hegelian idealism, while the Psychology explored the synthesis between this idealism and experimental science that Dewey was then attempting to effect. At Michigan Dewey also met one of his important philosophical collaborators, James Hayden Tufts, with whom he would later author Ethics (1908; revised ed. 1932).
In 1894, Dewey followed Tufts to the recently founded University of Chicago. It was during his years at Chicago that Dewey's early idealism gave way to an empirically based theory of knowledge that was in concert with the then developing American school of thought known as pragmatism. This change in view finally coalesced into a series of four essays entitled collectively "Thought and its Subject-Matter," which was published along with a number of other essays by Dewey's colleagues and students at Chicago under the title Studies in Logical Theory (1903). Dewey also founded and directed a laboratory school at Chicago, where he was afforded an opportunity to apply directly his developing ideas on pedagogical method. This experience provided the material for his first major work on education, The School and Society (1899).
Disagreements with the administration over the status of the Laboratory School led to Dewey's resignation from his post at Chicago in 1904. His philosophical reputation now secured, he was quickly invited to join the Department of Philosophy at Columbia University. Dewey spent the rest of his professional life at Columbia. Now in New York, located in the midst of the Northeastern universities that housed many of the brightest minds of American philosophy, Dewey developed close contacts with many philosophers working from divergent points of view, an intellectually stimulating atmosphere which served to nurture and enrich his thought.
During his first decade at Columbia Dewey wrote a great number of articles in the theory of knowledge and metaphysics, many of which were published in two important books: The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy and Other Essays in Contemporary Thought (1910) and Essays in Experimental Logic (1916). His interest in educational theory also continued during these years, fostered by his work at Teachers College at Columbia. This led to the publication of How We Think (1910; revised ed. 1933), an application of his theory of knowledge to education, and Democracy and Education (1916), perhaps his most important work in the field.
During his years at Columbia Dewey's reputation grew not only as a leading philosopher and educational theorist, but also in the public mind as an important commentator on contemporary issues, the latter due to his frequent contributions to popular magazines such as The New Republic and Nation, as well as his ongoing political involvement in a variety of causes, such as women's suffrage and the unionization of teachers. One outcome of this fame was numerous invitations to lecture in both academic and popular venues. Many of his most significant writings during these years were the result of such lectures, including Reconstruction in Philosophy (1920), Human Nature and Conduct (1922), Experience and Nature (1925), The Public and its Problems (1927), and The Quest for Certainty (1929).
Dewey's retirement from active teaching in 1930 did not curtail his activity either as a public figure or productive philosopher. Of special note in his public life was his participation in the Commission of Inquiry into the Charges Against Leon Trotsky at the Moscow Trial, which exposed Stalin's political machinations behind the Moscow trials of the mid-1930s, and his defense of fellow philosopher Bertrand Russell against an attempt by conservatives to remove him from his chair at the College of the City of New York in 1940. A primary focus of Dewey's philosophical pursuits during the 1930s was the preparation of a final formulation of his logical theory, published as Logic: The Theory of Inquiry in 1938. Dewey's other significant works during his retirement years include Art as Experience (1934), A Common Faith (1934), Freedom and Culture (1939), Theory of Valuation (1939), and Knowing and the Known (1949), the last coauthored with Arthur F. Bentley. Dewey continued to work vigorously throughout his retirement until his death on June 2, 1952, at the age of ninety-two.
Back to Table of Contents2. Theory of Knowledge
The central focus of Dewey's philosophical interests throughout his career was what has been traditionally called "epistemology," or the "theory of knowledge." It is indicative, however, of Dewey's critical stance toward past efforts in this area that he expressly rejected the term "epistemology," preferring the "theory of inquiry" or "experimental logic" as more representative of his own approach.
In Dewey's view, traditional epistemologies, whether rationalist or empiricist, had drawn too stark a distinction between thought, the domain of knowledge, and the world of fact to which thought purportedly referred: thought was believed to exist apart from the world, epistemically as the object of immediate awareness, ontologically as the unique aspect of the self. The commitment of modern rationalism, stemming from Descartes, to a doctrine of innate ideas, ideas constituted from birth in the very nature of the mind itself, had effected this dichotomy; but the modern empiricists, beginning with Locke, had done the same just as markedly by their commitment to an introspective methodology and a representational theory of ideas. The resulting view makes a mystery of the relevance of thought to the world: if thought constitutes a domain that stands apart from the world, how can its accuracy as an account of the world ever be established? For Dewey a new model, rejecting traditional presumptions, was wanting, a model that Dewey endeavored to develop and refine throughout his years of writing and reflection.
In his early writings on these issues, such as "Is Logic a Dualistic Science?" (1890) and "The Present Position of Logical Theory" (1891), Dewey offered a solution to epistemological issues mainly along the lines of his early acceptance of Hegelian idealism: the world of fact does not stand apart from thought, but is itself defined within thought as its objective manifestation. But during the succeeding decade Dewey gradually came to reject this solution as confused and inadequate.
A number of influences have bearing on Dewey's change of view. For one, Hegelian idealism was not conducive to accommodating the methodologies and results of experimental science which he accepted and admired. Dewey himself had attempted to effect such an accommodation between experimental psychology and idealism in his early Psychology (1887), but the publication of William James' Principles of Psychology (1891), written from a more thoroughgoing naturalistic stance, suggested the superfluity of idealist principles in the treatment of the subject.
Second, Darwin's theory of natural selection suggested in a more particular way the form which a naturalistic approach to the theory of knowledge should take. Darwin's theory had renounced supernatural explanations of the origins of species by accounting for the morphology of living organisms as a product of a natural, temporal process of the adaptation of lineages of organisms to their environments, environments which, Darwin understood, were significantly determined by the organisms that occupied them. The key to the naturalistic account of species was a consideration of the complex interrelationships between organisms and environments. In a similar way, Dewey came to believe that a productive, naturalistic approach to the theory of knowledge must begin with a consideration of the development of knowledge as an adaptive human response to environing conditions aimed at an active restructuring of these conditions. Unlike traditional approaches in the theory of knowledge, which saw thought as a subjective primitive out of which knowledge was composed, Dewey's approach understood thought genetically, as the product of the interaction between organism and environment, and knowledge as having practical instrumentality in the guidance and control of that interaction. Thus Dewey adopted the term "instrumentalism" as a descriptive appellation for his new approach.
Dewey's first significant application of this new naturalistic understanding was offered in his seminal article "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" (1896). In this article, Dewey argued that the dominant conception of the reflex arc in the psychology of his day, which was thought to begin with the passive stimulation of the organism, causing a conscious act of awareness eventuating in a response, was a carry-over of the old, and errant, mind-body dualism. Dewey argued for an alternative view: the organism interacts with the world through self-guided activity that coordinates and integrates sensory and motor responses. The implication for the theory of knowledge was clear: the world is not passively perceived and thereby known; active manipulation of the environment is involved integrally in the process of learning from the start.
Dewey first applied this interactive naturalism in an explicit manner to the theory of knowledge in his four introductory essays in Studies in Logical Theory. Dewey identified the view expressed in Studies with the school of pragmatism, crediting William James as its progenitor. James, for his part, in an article appearing in the Psychological Bulletin, proclaimed the work as the expression of a new school of thought, acknowledging its originality.
A detailed genetic analysis of the process of inquiry was Dewey's signal contribution to Studies. Dewey distinguished three phases of the process. It begins with the problematic situation, a situation where instinctive or habitual responses of the human organism to the environment are inadequate for the continuation of ongoing activity in pursuit of the fulfillment of needs and desires. Dewey stressed in Studies and subsequent writings that the uncertainty of the problematic situation is not inherently cognitive, but practical and existential. Cognitive elements enter into the process as a response to precognitive maladjustment.
The second phase of the process involves the isolation of the data or subject matter which defines the parameters within which the reconstruction of the initiating situation must be addressed. In the third, reflective phase of the process, the cognitive elements of inquiry (ideas, suppositions, theories, etc.) are entertained as hypothetical solutions to the originating impediment of the problematic situation, the implications of which are pursued in the abstract. The final test of the adequacy of these solutions comes with their employment in action. If a reconstruction of the antecedent situation conducive to fluid activity is achieved, then the solution no longer retains the character of the hypothetical that marks cognitive thought; rather, it becomes a part of the existential circumstances of human life.
The error of modern epistemologists, as Dewey saw it, was that they isolated the reflective stages of this process, and hypostatized the elements of those stages (sensations, ideas, etc.) into pre-existing constituents of a subjective mind in their search for an incorrigible foundation of knowledge. For Dewey, the hypostatization was as groundless as the search for incorrigibility was barren. Rejecting foundationalism, Dewey accepted the fallibilism that was characteristic of the school of pragmatism: the view that any proposition accepted as an item of knowledge has this status only provisionally, contingent upon its adequacy in providing a coherent understanding of the world as the basis for human action.
Dewey defended this general outline of the process of inquiry throughout his long career, insisting that it was the only proper way to understand the means by which we attain knowledge, whether it be the commonsense knowledge that guides the ordinary affairs of our lives, or the sophisticated knowledge arising from scientific inquiry. The latter is only distinguished from the former by the precision of its methods for controlling data, and the refinement of its hypotheses. In his writings in the theory of inquiry subsequent to Studies, Dewey endeavored to develop and deepen instrumentalism by considering a number of central issues of traditional epistemology from its perspective, and responding to some of the more trenchant criticisms of the view.
One traditional question that Dewey addressed in a series of essays between 1906 and 1909 was that of the meaning of truth. Dewey at that time considered the pragmatic theory of truth as central to the pragmatic school of thought, and vigorously defended its viability. Both Dewey and William James, in his book Pragmatism (1907), argued that the traditional correspondence theory of truth, according to which the true idea is one that agrees or corresponds to reality, only begs the question of what the "agreement" or "correspondence" of idea with reality is. Dewey and James maintained that an idea agrees with reality, and is therefore true, if and only if it is successfully employed in human action in pursuit of human goals and interests, that is, if it leads to the resolution of a problematic situation in Dewey's terms. The pragmatic theory of truth met with strong opposition among its critics, perhaps most notably from the British logician and philosopher Bertrand Russell. Dewey later began to suspect that the issues surrounding the conditions of truth, as well as knowledge, were hopelessly obscured by the accretion of traditional, and in his view misguided, meanings to the terms, resulting in confusing ambiguity. He later abandoned these terms in favor of "warranted assertiblity" to describe the distinctive property of ideas that results from successful inquiry.
One of the most important developments of his later writings in the theory of knowledge was the application of the principles of instrumentalism to the traditional conceptions and formal apparatus of logical theory. Dewey made significant headway in this endeavor in his lengthy introduction to Essays in Experimental Logic, but the project reached full fruition in Logic: The Theory of Inquiry.
The basis of Dewey's discussion in the Logic is the continuity of intelligent inquiry with the adaptive responses of pre-human organisms to their environments in circumstances that check efficient activity in the fulfillment of organic needs. What is distinctive about intelligent inquiry is that it is facilitated by the use of language, which allows, by its symbolic meanings and implication relationships, the hypothetical rehearsal of adaptive behaviors before their employment under actual, prevailing conditions for the purpose of resolving problematic situations. Logical form, the specialized subject matter of traditional logic, owes its genesis not to rational intuition, as had often been assumed by logicians, but due to its functional value in (1) managing factual evidence pertaining to the problematic situation that elicits inquiry, and (2) controlling the procedures involved in the conceptualized entertainment of hypothetical solutions. As Dewey puts it, "logical forms accrue to subject-matter when the latter is subjected to controlled inquiry."
From this new perspective, Dewey reconsiders many of the topics of traditional logic, such as the distinction between deductive and inductive inference, propositional form, and the nature of logical necessity. One important outcome of this work was a new theory of propositions. Traditional views in logic had held that the logical import of propositions is defined wholly by their syntactical form (e.g., "All As are Bs," "Some Bs are Cs"). In contrast, Dewey maintained that statements of identical propositional form can play significantly different functional roles in the process of inquiry. Thus in keeping with his distinction between the factual and conceptual elements of inquiry, he replaced the accepted distinctions between universal, particular, and singular propositions based on syntactical meaning with a distinction between existential and ideational propositions, a distinction that largely cuts across traditional classifications. The same general approach is taken throughout the work: the aim is to offer functional analyses of logical principles and techniques that exhibit their operative utility in the process of inquiry as Dewey understood it.
The breadth of topics treated and the depth and continuity of the discussion of these topics mark the Logic as Dewey's decisive statement in logical theory. The recognition of the work's importance within the philosophical community of the time can be gauged by the fact that the Journal of Philosophy, the most prominent American journal in the field, dedicated an entire issue to a discussion of the work, including contributions by such philosophical luminaries as C. I. Lewis of Harvard University, and Ernest Nagel, Dewey's colleague at Columbia University. Although many of his critics did question, and continue to question, the assumptions of his approach, one that is certainly unique in the development of twentieth century logical theory, there is no doubt that the work was and continues to be an important contribution to the field.
Back to Table of Contents3. Metaphysics
Dewey's naturalistic metaphysics first took shape in articles that he wrote during the decade after the publication of Studies in Logical Theory, a period when he was attempting to elucidate the implications of instrumentalism. Dewey disagreed with William James's assessment that pragmatic principles were metaphysically neutral. (He discusses this disagreement in "What Does Pragmatism Mean by Practical," published in 1908.) Dewey's view was based in part on an assessment of the motivations behind traditional metaphysics: a central aim of the metaphysical tradition had been the discovery of an immutable cognitive object that could serve as a foundation for knowledge. The pragmatic theory, by showing that knowledge is a product of an activity directed to the fulfillment of human purposes, and that a true (or warranted) belief is known to be such by the consequences of its employment rather than by any psychological or ontological foundations, rendered this longstanding aim of metaphysics, in Dewey's view, moot, and opened the door to renewed metaphysical discussion grounded firmly on an empirical basis.
Dewey begins to define the general form that an empirical metaphysics should take in a number of articles, including "The Postulate of Immediate Empiricism" (1905) and "Does Reality Possess Practical Character?" (1908). In the former article, Dewey asserts that things experienced empirically "are what they are experienced as." Dewey uses as an example a noise heard in a darkened room that is initially experienced as fearsome. Subsequent inquiry (e.g., turning on the lights and looking about) reveals that the noise was caused by a shade tapping against a window, and thus innocuous. But the subsequent inquiry, Dewey argues, does not change the initial status of the noise: it was experienced as fearsome, and in fact was fearsome. The point stems from the naturalistic roots of Dewey's logic. Our experience of the world is constituted by our interrelationship with it, a relationship that is imbued with practical import. The initial fearsomeness of the noise is the experiential correlate of the uncertain, problematic character of the situation, an uncertainty that is not merely subjective or mental, but a product of the potential inadequacy of previously established modes of behavior to deal effectively with the pragmatic demands of present circumstances. The subsequent inquiry does not, therefore, uncover a reality (the innocuousness of the noise) underlying a mere appearance (its fearsomeness), but by settling the demands of the situation, it effects a change in the inter-dynamics of the organism-environment relationship of the initial situation--a change in reality.
There are two important implications of this line of thought that distinguish it from the metaphysical tradition. First, although inquiry is aimed at resolving the precarious and confusing aspects of experience to provide a stable basis for action, this does not imply the unreality of the unstable and contingent, nor justify its relegation to the status of mere appearance. Thus, for example, the usefulness and reliability of utilizing certain stable features of things encountered in our experience as a basis for classification does not justify according ultimate reality to essences or Platonic forms any more than, as rationalist metaphysicians in the modern era have thought, the similar usefulness of mathematical reasoning in understanding natural processes justifies the conclusion that the world can be exhaustively defined mathematically.
Second, the fact that the meanings we attribute to natural events might change in any particular in the future as renewed inquiries lead to more adequate understandings of natural events (as was implied by Dewey's fallibilism) does not entail that our experience of the world at any given time may as a whole be errant. Thus the implicit skepticism that underlies the representational theory of ideas and raises questions concerning the veracity of perceptual experience as such is unwarranted. Dewey stresses the point that sensations, hypotheses, ideas, etc., come into play to mediate our encounter with the world only in the context of active inquiry. Once inquiry is successful in resolving a problematic situation, mediatory sensations and ideas, as Dewey says, "drop out; and things are present to the agent in the most naively realistic fashion."
These contentions positioned Dewey's metaphysics within the territory of a naive realism, and in a number of his articles, such as "The Realism of Pragmatism" (1905), "Brief Studies in Realism" (1911), and "The Existence of the World as a Logical Problem" (1915), it is this view that Dewey expressly avows (a view that he carefully distinguishes from what he calls "presentational realism," which he attributes to a number of the other realists of his day). Opposing narrow-minded positions that would accord full ontological status only to certain, typically the most stable or reliable, aspects of experience, Dewey argues for a position that recognizes the real significance of the multifarious richness of human experience.
Dewey offered a fuller statement of his metaphysics in 1925, with the publication of one of his most significant philosophical works, Experience and Nature. In the introductory chapter, Dewey stresses a familiar theme from his earlier writings: that previous metaphysicians, guided by unavowed biases for those aspects of experience that are relatively stable and secure, have illicitly reified these biases into narrow ontological presumptions, such as the temporal identity of substance, or the ultimate reality of forms or essences. Dewey finds this procedure so pervasive in the history of thought that he calls it simply the philosophic fallacy, and signals his intention to eschew the disastrous consequences of this approach by offering a descriptive account of all of the various generic features of human experience, whatever their character.
Dewey begins with the observation that the world as we experience it both individually and collectively is an admixture of the precarious, the transitory and contingent aspect of things, and the stable, the patterned regularity of natural processes that allows for prediction and human intervention. Honest metaphysical description must take into account both of these elements of experience. Dewey endeavors to do this by an event ontology. The world, rather than being comprised of things or, in more traditional terms, substances, is comprised of happenings or occurrences that admit of both episodic uniqueness and general, structured order. Intrinsically events have an ineffable qualitative character by which they are immediately enjoyed or suffered, thus providing the basis for experienced value and aesthetic appreciation. Extrinsically events are connected to one another by patterns of change and development; any given event arises out of determinant prior conditions and leads to probable consequences. The patterns of these temporal processes is the proper subject matter of human knowledge--we know the world in terms of causal laws and mathematical relationships--but the instrumental value of understanding and controlling them should not blind us to the immediate, qualitative aspect of events; indeed, the value of scientific understanding is most significantly realized in the facility it affords for controlling the circumstances under which immediate enjoyments may be realized.
It is in terms of the distinction between qualitative immediacy and the structured order of events that Dewey understands the general pattern of human life and action. This understanding is captured by James' suggestive metaphor that human experience consists of an alternation of flights and perchings, an alternation of concentrated effort directed toward the achievement of foreseen aims, what Dewey calls "ends-in-view," with the fruition of effort in the immediate satisfaction of "consummatory experience." Dewey's insistence that human life follows the patterns of nature, as a part of nature, is the core tenet of his naturalistic outlook.
Dewey also addresses the social aspect of human experience facilitated by symbolic activity, particularly that of language. For Dewey the question of the nature of social relationships is a significant matter not only for social theory, but metaphysics as well, for it is from collective human activity, and specifically the development of shared meanings that govern this activity, that the mind arises. Thus rather than understanding the mind as a primitive and individual human endowment, and a precondition of conscious and intentional action, as was typical in the philosophical tradition since Descartes, Dewey offers a genetic analysis of mind as an emerging aspect of cooperative activity mediated by linguistic communication. Consciousness, in turn, is not to be understood as a domain of private awareness, but rather as the fulcrum point of the organism's readjustment to the challenge of novel conditions where the meanings and attitudes that formulate habitual behavioral responses to the environment fail to be adequate. Thus Dewey offers in the better part of a number of chapters of Experience and Nature a response to the traditional mind-body problem of the metaphysical tradition, a response that understands the mind as an emergent issue of natural processes, more particularly the web of interactive relationships between human beings and the world in which they live.
Back to Table of Contents4. Ethical and Social Theory
Dewey's mature thought in ethics and social theory is not only intimately linked to the theory of knowledge in its founding conceptual framework and naturalistic standpoint, but also complementary to it in its emphasis on the social dimension of inquiry both in its processes and its consequences. In fact, it would be reasonable to claim that Dewey's theory of inquiry cannot be fully understood either in the meaning of its central tenets or the significance of its originality without considering how it applies to social aims and values, the central concern of his ethical and social theory.
Dewey rejected the atomistic understanding of society of the Hobbesian social contract theory, according to which the social, cooperative aspect of human life was grounded in the logically prior and fully articulated rational interests of individuals. Dewey's claim in Experience and Nature that the collection of meanings that constitute the mind have a social origin expresses the basic contention, one that he maintained throughout his career, that the human individual is a social being from the start, and that individual satisfaction and achievement can be realized only within the context of social habits and institutions that promote it.
Moral and social problems, for Dewey, are concerned with the guidance of human action to the achievement of socially defined ends that are productive of a satisfying life for individuals within the social context. Regarding the nature of what constitutes a satisfying life, Dewey was intentionally vague, out of his conviction that specific ends or goods can be defined only in particular socio-historical contexts. In the Ethics (1932) he speaks of the ends simply as the cultivation of interests in goods that recommend themselves in the light of calm reflection. In other works, such as Human Nature and Conduct and Art as Experience, he speaks of (1) the harmonizing of experience (the resolution of conflicts of habit and interest both within the individual and within society), (2) the release from tedium in favor of the enjoyment of variety and creative action, and (3) the expansion of meaning (the enrichment of the individual's appreciation of his or her circumstances within human culture and the world at large). The attunement of individual efforts to the promotion of these social ends constitutes, for Dewey, the central issue of ethical concern of the individual; the collective means for their realization is the paramount question of political policy.
Conceived in this manner, the appropriate method for solving moral and social questions is the same as that required for solving questions concerning matters of fact: an empirical method that is tied to an examination of problematic situations, the gathering of relevant facts, and the imaginative consideration of possible solutions that, when utilized, bring about a reconstruction and resolution of the original situations. Dewey, throughout his ethical and social writings, stressed the need for an open-ended, flexible, and experimental approach to problems of practice aimed at the determination of the conditions for the attainment of human goods and a critical examination of the consequences of means adopted to promote them, an approach that he called the "method of intelligence."
The central focus of Dewey's criticism of the tradition of ethical thought is its tendency to seek solutions to moral and social problems in dogmatic principles and simplistic criteria which in his view were incapable of dealing effectively with the changing requirements of human events. In Reconstruction of Philosophy and The Quest for Certainty, Dewey located the motivation of traditional dogmatic approaches in philosophy in the forlorn hope for security in an uncertain world, forlorn because the conservatism of these approaches has the effect of inhibiting the intelligent adaptation of human practice to the ineluctable changes in the physical and social environment. Ideals and values must be evaluated with respect to their social consequences, either as inhibitors or as valuable instruments for social progress, and Dewey argues that philosophy, because of the breadth of its concern and its critical approach, can play a crucial role in this evaluation.
In large part, then, Dewey's ideas in ethics and social theory were programmatic rather than substantive, defining the direction that he believed human thought and action must take in order to identify the conditions that promote the human good in its fullest sense, rather than specifying particular formulae or principles for individual and social action. He studiously avoided participating in what he regarded as the unfortunate practice of previous moral philosophers of offering general rules that legislate universal standards of conduct. But there are strong suggestions in a number of his works of basic ethical and social positions. In Human Nature and Conduct Dewey approaches ethical inquiry through an analysis of human character informed by the principles of scientific psychology. The analysis is reminiscent of Aristotelian ethics, concentrating on the central role of habit in formulating the dispositions of action that comprise character, and the importance of reflective intelligence as a means of modifying habits and controlling disruptive desires and impulses in the pursuit of worthwhile ends.
The social condition for the flexible adaptation that Dewey believed was crucial for human advancement is a democratic form of life, not instituted merely by democratic forms of governance, but by the inculcation of democratic habits of cooperation and public spiritedness, productive of an organized, self-conscious community of individuals responding to society's needs by experimental and inventive, rather than dogmatic, means. The development of these democratic habits, Dewey argues in School and Society and Democracy and Education, must begin in the earliest years of a child's educational experience. Dewey rejected the notion that a child's education should be viewed as merely a preparation for civil life, during which disjoint facts and ideas are conveyed by the teacher and memorized by the student only to be utilized later on. The school should rather be viewed as an extension of civil society and continuous with it, and the student encouraged to operate as a member of a community, actively pursuing interests in cooperation with others. It is by a process of self-directed learning, guided by the cultural resources provided by teachers, that Dewey believed a child is best prepared for the demands of responsible membership within the democratic community.
Back to Table of Contents5. Aesthetics
Dewey's one significant treatment of aesthetic theory is offered in Art as Experience, a book that was based on the William James Lectures that he delivered at Harvard University in 1931. The book stands out as a diversion into uncommon philosophical territory for Dewey, adumbrated only by a somewhat sketchy and tangential treatment of art in one chapter of Experience and Nature. The unique status of the work in Dewey's corpus evoked some criticism from Dewey's followers, most notably Stephen Pepper, who believed that it marked an unfortunate departure from the naturalistic standpoint of his instrumentalism, and a return to the idealistic viewpoints of his youth. On close reading, however, Art as Experience reveals a considerable continuity of Dewey's views on art with the main themes of his previous philosophical work, while offering an important and useful extension of those themes. Dewey had always stressed the importance of recognizing the significance and integrity of all aspects of human experience. His repeated complaint against the partiality and bias of the philosophical tradition expresses this theme. Consistent with this theme, Dewey took account of qualitative immediacy in Experience and Nature, and incorporated it into his view of the developmental nature of experience, for it is in the enjoyment of the immediacy of an integration and harmonization of meanings, in the "consummatory phase" of experience that, in Dewey's view, the fruition of the re-adaptation of the individual with environment is realized. These central themes are enriched and deepened in Art as Experience, making it one of Dewey's most significant works.
The roots of aesthetic experience lie, Dewey argues, in commonplace experience, in the consummatory experiences that are ubiquitous in the course of human life. There is no legitimacy to the conceit cherished by some art enthusiasts that aesthetic enjoyment is the privileged endowment of the few. Whenever there is a coalesence into an immediately enjoyed qualitative unity of meanings and values drawn from previous experience and present circumstances, life then takes on an aesthetic quality--what Dewey called having "an experience." Nor is the creative work of the artist, in its broad parameters, unique. The process of intelligent use of materials and the imaginative development of possible solutions to problems issuing in a reconstruction of experience that affords immediate satisfaction, the process found in the creative work of artists, is also to be found in all intelligent and creative human activity. What distinguishes artistic creation is the relative stress laid upon the immediate enjoyment of unified qualitative complexity as the rationalizing aim of the activity itself, and the ability of the artist to achieve this aim by marshalling and refining the massive resources of human life, meanings, and values.
The senses play a key role in artistic creation and aesthetic appreciation. Dewey, however, argues against the view, stemming historically from the sensationalistic empiricism of David Hume, that interprets the content of sense experience simply in terms of the traditionally codified list of sense qualities, such as color, odor, texture, etc., divorced from the funded meanings of past experience. It is not only the sensible qualities present in the physical media the artist uses, but the wealth of meaning that attaches to these qualities, that constitute the material that is refined and unified in the process of artistic expression. The artist concentrates, clarifies, and vivifies these meanings in the artwork. The unifying element in this process is emotion--not the emotion of raw passion and outburst, but emotion that is reflected upon and used as a guide to the overall character of the artwork. Although Dewey insisted that emotion is not the significant content of the work of art, he clearly understands it to be the crucial tool of the artist's creative activity.
Dewey repeatedly returns in Art as Experience to a familiar theme of his critical reflections upon the history of ideas, namely that a distinction too strongly drawn too often sacrifices accuracy of account for a misguided simplicity. Two applications of this theme are worth mentioning here. Dewey rejects the sharp distinction often made in aesthetics between the matter and the form of an artwork. What Dewey objected to was the implicit suggestion that matter and form stand side by side, as it were, in the artwork as distinct and precisely distinguishable elements. For Dewey, form is better understood in a dynamic sense as the coordination and adjustment of the qualities and associated meanings that are integrated within the artwork.
A second misguided distinction that Dewey rejects is that between the artist as the active creator and the audience as the passive recipient of art. This distinction artificially truncates the artistic process by in effect suggesting that the process ends with the final artifact of the artist's creativity. Dewey argues that, to the contrary, the process is barren without the agency of the appreciator, whose active assimilation of the artist's work requires a recapitulation of many of the same processes of discrimination, comparison, and integration that are present in the artist's initial work, but now guided by the artist's perception and skill. Dewey underscores the point by distinguishing between the "art product," the painting, sculpture, etc., created by the artist, and the "work of art" proper, which is only realized through the active engagement of an astute audience.
Ever concerned with the interrelationships between the various domains of human activity and concern, Dewey ends Art as Experience with a chapter devoted to the social implications of the arts. Art is a product of culture, and it is through art that the people of a given culture express the significance of their lives, as well as their hopes and ideals. Because art has its roots in the consummatory values experienced in the course of human life, its values have an affinity to commonplace values, an affinity that accords to art a critical office in relation to prevailing social conditions. Insofar as the possibility for a meaningful and satisfying life disclosed in the values embodied in art is not realized in the lives of the members of a society, the social relationships that preclude this realization are condemned. Dewey's specific target in this chapter was the conditions of workers in industrialized society, conditions which force upon the worker the performance of repetitive tasks that are devoid of personal interest and afford no satisfaction in personal accomplishment. The degree to which this critical function of art is ignored is a further indication of what Dewey regarded as the unfortunate distancing of the arts from the common pursuits and interests of ordinary life. The realization of art's social function requires the closure of this bifurcation.
Back to Table of Contents6. Critical Reception and Influence
Dewey's philosophical work received varied responses from his philosophical colleagues during his lifetime. There were many philosophers who saw his work, as Dewey himself understood it, as a genuine attempt to apply the principles of an empirical naturalism to the perennial questions of philosophy, providing a beneficial clarification of issues and the concepts used to address them. Dewey's critics, however, often expressed the opinion that his views were more confusing than clarifying, and that they appeared to be more akin to idealism than the scientifically based naturalism Dewey expressly avowed. Notable in this connection are Dewey's disputes concerning the relation of the knowing subject to known objects with the realists Bertrand Russell, A. O. Lovejoy, and Evander Bradley McGilvery. Whereas these philosophers argued that the object of knowledge must be understood as existing apart from the knowing subject, setting the truth conditions for propositions, Dewey defended the view that things understood as isolated from any relationship with the human organism could not be objects of knowledge at all.
Dewey was sensitive and responsive to the criticisms brought against his views. He often attributed them to misinterpretations based on the traditional, philosophical connotations that some of his readers would attach to his terminology. This was clearly a fair assessment with respect to some of his critics. To take one example, Dewey used the term "experience," found throughout his philosophical writings, to denote the broad context of the human organism's interrelationship with its environment, not the domain of human thought alone, as some of his critics read him to mean. Dewey's concern for clarity of expression motivated efforts in his later writings to revise his terminology. Thus, for example, he later substituted "transaction" for his earlier "interaction" to denote the relationship between organism and environment, since the former better suggested a dynamic interdependence between the two, and in a new introduction to Experience and Nature, never published during his lifetime, he offered the term "culture" as an alternative to "experience." Late in his career he attempted a more sweeping revision of philosophical terminology in Knowing and the Known, written in collaboration with Arthur F. Bentley.
The influence of Dewey's work, along with that of the pragmatic school of thought itself, although considerable in the first few decades of the twentieth century, was gradually eclipsed during the middle part of the century as other philosophical methods, such as those of the analytic school in England and America and phenomenology in continental Europe, grew to ascendency. Recent trends in philosophy, however, leading to the dissolution of these rigid paradigms, have led to approaches that continue and expand on the themes of Dewey's work. W. V. O. Quine's project of naturalizing epistemology works upon naturalistic presumptions anticipated in Dewey's own naturalistic theory of inquiry. The social dimension and function of belief systems, explored by Dewey and other pragmatists, has received renewed attention by such writers as Richard Rorty and Jürgen Habermas. American phenomenologists such as Sandra Rosenthal and James Edie have considered the affinities of phenomenology and pragmatism, and Hilary Putnam, an analytically trained philosophy, has recently acknowledged the affinity of his own approach to ethics to that of Dewey's. The renewed openness and pluralism of recent philosophical discussion has meant a renewed interest in Dewey's philosophy, an interest that promises to continue for some time to come.